Source: Kings of Burma
The principle behind this page and this index is that of China as the “Middle Kingdom”, with the rest of the world arranged around it. This works pretty well for the countries listed, as does the Chinese five element theory. For Earth (yellow), in the Center, is China itself. For Water (black), in the North, is Mongolia. For
Metal |
(white), in the West, is Tibet. For Fire (red), in the South, are Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Burma. And for Wood (green/blue), in the East, are Korea and Japan.
Anomalies here are the Southeast Asian group, of Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Burma, and then Japan and Mongolia. Thailand (with Laos), although seeking and accepting a diploma from China for its ruler as a king (wang), nevertheless is largely a sub-Indian rather than a sub-Chinese culture, with Theravada Buddhism and a Sanskrit-derived alphabet. Burma, which was occasionally invaded from China, and sometimes under Chinese suzerainty, was also a sub-Indian civilization. Cambodia, with Champa, at first developed quite independently of China, under Indian influence from Indonesia, later, like Thailand, came under Chinese influence. These Theravada states are thus all colored more orange than red, to indicate their cultural status in relation to India rather than China.
Japan, although definitely a sub-Chinese culture and addressed as a “kingdom” in Chinese diplomacy, was never in any doubt that it was the equal or superior of China; and so is given separately with India and China under its own principle as a member of the Sangoku, the “Three Kingdoms.” Japan’s Great Power status in the 20th century, and brief East Asian hegemony, certainly rates this. Mongolia was also never in doubt about its superiority, and it is the only one of the listed countries that ever conquered and ruled China itself (not to mention most of Central and Western Asia, and Eastern Europe). Although then conquered by (Manchu) China, Mongolia is sui generis and rates its own page, including many successor states (the Golden Horde, etc.) that never had anything to do with China.
While Vietnam eventually styled itself an “empire,” equal to China, Korea, into which Chinese force was the most easily and frequently projected, seems to have accepted its status. Tibet, while a sub-Indian culture like Thailand, and which was once strong enough to drive China out of Sinkiang, was never subordinate to a native Chinese government (i.e. had only been conquered by the Mongols and the Manchus) until the Communist invasion of 1950. Politically and diplomatically, Tibet was always within the Chinese sphere of action, but its modern annexation is an anomaly both of Tibetan and of (Han) Chinese history.
The Burmese speak a Sino-Tibean language, more closely related to Tibetan and Karen than to Chinese itself. But, despite frequent political and military involvement with China, Burma has always been a sub-Indian culture, with Theravadin Buddhist religion and a Sanskrit based alphabet. The interesting circular form of Burmese letters is a consequence of the original writing materials. These were strips of leaves that would split easily if straight lines were made along the grain. Circular forms avoid or minimize this danger.
The earliest civilization in Burma was on the coast of Arakan. This was occasionally subject to the strong Burmese states in the Irrawaddy valley and eventually was absorbed.
ARAKAN | |
WETHALI | |
Mahataingsandra | 788-810 |
Thuriyataingsandra | .810-830 |
Maulataingsandra | 830-849 |
Paulataingsandra | 849-875 |
Kalataingsandra | 875-884 |
Dulataingsandra | 884-903 |
Thiritaingsandra | 903-935 |
Thingghathataingsandra | 935-951 |
Tsulataingsandra | 951-957 |
Amyathu | 957-964 |
Paiphyu | 964-994 |
Ngamengngatum | 994-1018 |
First PINGTSA | |
Khettarheng | 1018-1028 |
Tsandatheng | 1028-1039 |
Mengrengphyu | 1039-1049 |
Nagathuriya | 1049-1052 |
Thuriyaradza | 1052-1054 |
Punnaka | 1054-1058 |
Mengphyugyi | 1058-1060 |
Tsithabeng | 1060-1061 |
Mengnanthu | 1061-1066 |
Menglade | 1066-1072 |
Mengkula | 1072-1075 |
Mengbhilu | 1075-1078 |
Thengkhaya | 1078-1092 |
Mengthan | 1092-1100 |
Mengpadi | 1100-1103 |
PARIN | |
Letyamengnan | 1103-1109 |
Thihaba | 1109-1110 |
Radzagyi | 1110-1112 |
Thakiwenggyi | 1112-1115 |
Thakiwengngay | 1115-1133 |
Gauliya | 1133-1153 |
Datharadza | 1153-1165 |
Ananthiri | 1165-1167 |
KHYIT | |
Mengphuntsa | 1167-1174 |
Pintsakawa | 1174-1176 |
Gannayubaw | 1176-1179 |
Tsalengkabo | 1179-1180 |
Second PINGTSA | |
Midzutheng | 1180-1191 |
Ngaranman | 1191-1193 |
Ngapuggan | 1193-1195 |
Ngarakhoing | 1195-1198 |
Ngakyun | 1198-1201 |
Ngatshu | 1201-1205 |
Ngatswaitheng | 1205-1206 |
Mengkounggyi | 1206-1207 |
Mengkhoungngay | 1207-1208 |
Kambhalounggyi | 1208-1209 |
Kambhaloungngay | 1209-1210 |
Letyagyi | 1210-1218 |
Letyangay | 1218-1229 |
Thanabeng | 1229-1232 |
Nganathin | 1232-1234 |
Nganalum | 1234-1237 |
LOUNG-KYET | |
Hlanmaphyu | 1237-1243 |
Radzathugyi | 1243-1246 |
Tsaulu | 1246-1251 |
Utstsanagyi | 1251-1260 |
Tsaumwungyi | 1260-1268 |
Nankyagyi | 1268-1272 |
Mengbhilu | 1272-1276 |
Tsithabeng | 1276-1279 |
Meng Di | 1279-1385 |
vassal of Ava, 1379-1430 | |
Utstsanangay | 1385-1387 |
Thiwarit | 1387-1390 |
Thintse | 1390-1394 |
Radzathu | 1394-1395, 1397-1401 |
Tsithabeng | 1395-1397 |
Myintsoingkyi | 1397 |
Thinggathu | 1401-1403 |
MYOUK-U | |
Mengtsaumwun | 1404-1406, 1430-1434 |
Vacant, 1406-1430 | |
Menkhari | 1434-1459 |
Batsauphyu | 1459-1482 |
Daulya | 1482-1492 |
Batsonygo | 1492-1494 |
Ranoung | 1494 |
Tsalenggathu | 1494-1501 |
Menradza | 1501-1523 |
Gadzabadi | 1523-1525 |
Mengtsau-o | 1525 |
Thatsata | 1525-1531 |
Mengbeng | 1531-1553 |
Dik-Kha | 1553-1555 |
Tsau-Lha | 1555-1564 |
Mengtsekya | 1564-1571 |
Mengphaloung | 1571-1593 |
Mengradzagyi | 1593-1612 |
Mengkhamoung | 1612-1622 |
Thirithudhamma | 1622-1638 |
Mengtsani | 1638 |
Thado | 1638-1645 |
Narabadigyi | 1645-1652 |
Tsandathudhamma | 1652-1684 |
Thirithuriya | 1684-1685 |
Wara Dhammaradza | 1684-1692 |
Munithu Dhammaradza | 1692-1694 |
Tsandathuriya Dhammaradza | 1694-1696 |
Naukahtadzau | 1696 |
Mayuppiya | 1696-1697 |
Kalamandat | 1697-1698 |
Naradhibadi | 1698-1700 |
Tsandawimala I | 1700-1706 |
Tsandathuriya | 1706-1710, 1731-1734 |
Tsandawidzaya | 1710-1731 |
Naradhibadi | 1734-1735 |
Narapawararadza | 1735-1737 |
Tsandawidzala | 1737 |
Katya | 1737 |
Madarit | 1737-1742 |
Nara-Apaya | 1742-1761 |
Thirithu | 1761 |
Paramaradza | 1761-1764 |
Maharadza | 1764-1773 |
Thumana | 1773-1777 |
Tsandawimala II | 1777 |
Thamitha-Dhammayit | 1777-1782 |
Thamada | 1782-1784 |
to Burma, 1784 |
The first great central Burmese state was that of Pagan. This eventually came to an end with invasion by the Mongols and the influx of the Shan people.
KINGDOM of PAGAN | |
Pyinbya | c.900-c.925 |
Tannet | c.925-c.950 |
Nga Khwe | c.950-c.955 |
Theinkho | c.955-c.970 |
Ngyaungusaw Rahan | c.970-c.995 |
Kwonsaw Kyung Phyu | c.995-c.1014 |
Kyitso | c.1014-c.1020 |
Tsukkata | c.1020-1044 |
Anawrahta | 1044-1077 |
Sawlu | 1077-1084 |
Kyanzittha | 1084-1113 |
embassy to China, 1106 | |
Alaungsithu | 1113-1167 |
Mengshengtsau | 1167 |
Narathu I | 1167-1170 |
Narathenkha | 1170-1173 |
Narapatisithu | 1173-1210 |
Nantonmya | 1210-1234 |
Kyaswa | 1234-1250 |
Uzana I | 1250-1254 |
Narathihapate, “He who ran from the Chinese” |
1254-1287 |
Mongols loot Pagan, 1287 | |
Kyawswa | Mongol Vassal, 1287-1298 |
Sawahnit | 1298-1325 |
Combined with Pinya | |
KINGDOM of PINYA | |
Athinhkaya | 1298-c.1312 |
Yazathinkyan | 1298-c.1312 |
Thihathu | 1298-1324 |
Uzana II | 1324-1343 |
Ngashishin | 1343-1350 |
Kyanswange | 1350-1359 |
Narathu II | 1359-1364 |
Uzana Pyaung | 1364 |
KINGDOM of AVA | |
Thadominbya | 1364-1368 |
Nga Nu the Usurper | 1368 |
Minkyiswasawke | Chinese Vassal, 1368-1401 |
Tarabya | 1401 |
Nga Nauk Han | usurper, 1401 |
Minhkaung I | 1401-1422 |
Thihathu | 1422-1426 |
Minhlange | 1426 |
Kalekyetaungnvo | 1426-1427 |
Mohnyinthado | 1427-1440 |
Minrekyansa | 1440-1443 |
Narapati | Chinese Vassal, 1443-1469 |
Thihathura | 1469-1481 |
Minhkaung II | 1481-1502 |
Shwenankyawshin | 1502-1527 |
Thohanbwa the Usurper | 1527-1543 |
Hkonmaing the Shan | 1543-1546 |
Mobye Narapati | Shan Vassal, 1546-1552 |
Sithkyawhtin | Shan Vassal, 1552-1555 |
to Taungu, 1555 |
SHAN | |
Wareru | 1287-1306 |
Khunlau | 1306-1310 |
Dzau-au | 1310-1323 |
Dzaudzip | 1323-1330 |
Binya-e Lau | 1330-1348 |
Binya-u | 1348-1385 |
Binya-Nwe | 1385-1423 |
Binya Dhamma Radza | 1423-1426 |
Binya Rankit | 1426-1446 |
Binya Waru | 1446-1450 |
Binya Keng | 1450-1453 |
Mhaudau | 1453 |
Shengtsaubu (f) | 1453-1460 |
Dhamma Dzedi | 1460-1491 |
Binya Ran | 1491-1526 |
Takarwutbi | 1526-1540 |
TAUNGU/TOUNGOO | |
Tabin Shwehti | 1531-1550 |
captures Pengu, 1539; King of Lower Burma, 1542; captures Pagan, 1546; King of all Burma | |
Thamindwut | 1550 |
Thaminhtau | 1550-1551 |
Bayin Naung | 1551-1581 |
captures Ava, 1555; captures Chiang Mai, 1557; attacks Ayuthya, 1563; captures Ayuthya, 1569 | |
Nandabayin | 1581-1599 |
driven from Siam, 1593; Chinese intervention, 1599-1600 | |
TAUNGU | |
Ngyaung Ram Meng | 1599-1605 |
Mahadhammaraja | 1605-1628 |
Mengre Dippa | 1628-1629 |
Thalwun Mengtara | 1629-1648 |
Bengtale | 1648-1661 |
Pyi Meng | 1661-1672 |
Narawara | 1672 |
Thiri Pawara Mahadhammaraja |
1672-1698 |
Thiri Maha Thihathura Thudhamma |
1698-1714 |
Thiri Pawara Mahadhammaraja Dibati Hsengphyusheng |
1714-1733 |
Mahadhammaraja Dibati | 1733-1751 |
to Konbaung, 1751 | |
SHAN | |
Buddha Thi Gwe Meng | 1740-1746 |
Binya Dala | 1746-1757 |
KONBAUNG | |
Alaungpaya | 1753-1760 |
Naundawgyi | 1760-1763 |
Hsinbyushin | 1763-1776 |
Chinese invasion, 1765-1769; Ayuthya destroyed, 1767 | |
Singu Min | 1776-1781 |
Maung Maung | 1781 |
Bodawdaya | 1781-1819 |
captures Arakan, 1784; invasion of Siam defeated, 1785; Peace with Siam, acquisition of Tenasserim coast, 1793 | |
Bagyidaw | 1819-1837 |
First Burmese War, 1824-1826, loss of Assam, Arakan, & Tenasserim to Britain, 1826 | |
Tharrawaddy | 1837-1846 |
Pagin Min | 1846-1852 |
Mindon Min | 1853-1878 |
Second Burmese War, 1852-1853, Lower Burma to Britain, 1853; Manalay becomes capital, 1857 | |
Thibaw | 1878-1885, d.1916 |
Third Burmese War, 1885, Burma annexed by Britain, 1886-1942, 1945-1948; Japanese occupation, 1942-1945 |
British Chief Commissioners |
|
Sir Arthur Purves Phayre | 1862-1867 |
Albert Fytche | 1867-1871 |
Ashley Eden | 1871-1875 |
Sir Augustus Rivers Thompson | 1875-1878 |
Charles Umpherston Aitchinson | 1878-1880 |
Sir Charles Edward Bernard | 1880-1883 |
Sir Charles Haukes Todd | 1883-1886 |
Third Burmese War, 1885, Upper Burma annexed by Britain, 1886 | |
Sir Charles Edward Bernard | 1886-1887 |
Sir Charles Haukes Todd | 1887-1890 |
Alexander Mackenzie | 1890-1895 |
Frederick William Richard Fryer | 1895-1897 |
Lieutenant Governors | |
Frederick William Richard Fryer | 1897-1903 |
Sir Hugh Shakespear Barnes | 1903-1905 |
Sir Herbert Thirkell White | 1905-1910 |
Sir Harvey Adamson | 1910-1915 |
Sir George Shaw | 1913-1913 |
Sir Spencer Harcourt Butler | 1915-1917 |
Walter Francis Rice | 1917-1918 |
Sir Reginald Henry Craddock | 1918-1922 |
Sir Spencer Harcourt Butler | 1922-1923 |
Governors | |
Sir Spencer Harcourt Butler | 1923-1927 |
Sir Charles Alexander Innes | 1927-1932 |
Sir Hugh Landsdowne Stephenson | 1932-1936 |
Sir Archibald Douglas Cochrane | 1936-1941 |
Sir Reginald Hugh Dorman-Smith | 1941-1946 |
Japanese Occupation, 1942-1945; Military Commanders | |
Shojiro Iida | 1942-1943 |
Masakazu Kawabe | 1943-1944 |
Heitaro Kimura | 1944-1945 |
Allied Military Governors | |
Louis Mountbatten | 1944-1945 |
Sir Hubert Elvin Rance | 1945-1946 |
Governor | |
Sir Hubert Elvin Rance | 1946-1948 |
1422-1426
Minhlange
1426
Kalekyetaungnvo
1426-1427
Mohnyinthado
1427-1440
Minrekyansa
1440-1443
Narapati
Chinese Vassal,
1443-1469
Thihathura
1469-1481
Minhkaung II
1481-1502
Shwenankyawshin
1502-1527
Thohanbwa the Usurper
1527-1543
Hkonmaing the Shan
1543-1546
Mobye Narapati
Shan Vassal,
1546-1552
Sithkyawhtin
Shan Vassal,
1552-1555
to Taungu, 1555
After the fall of Pagan and a transitional kingdom, the next great Burmese state was Ava. Ava, however, would never dominate Burma. It was precariously surrounded by the Shan states in the north, Arakan in the west, and Pegu in the south, sometimes advancing, as against Arakan in 1379-1430, sometimes retreating, and sometimes dominated by China.
These lists were largely derived from Bruce R. Gordon’s Regnal Chronologies, with some details added from An Encyclopedia of World History (William L. Langer, Houghton Mifflin, 1952). The Maps are based on the Oxford Atlas of World History (Patrick K. O’Brien, General Editor, 1999, pp.64-65). Good linguistic information is in The Atlas of Languages (Facts On File, 1996, pp.62-64); and a description of the Burmese language and its alphabet is in The World’s Major Languages, edited by Bernard Comrie [Oxford University Press, 1987, pp.834-854].
Wareru
1287-1306
Khunlau
1306-1310
Dzau-au
1310-1323
Dzaudzip
1323-1330
Binya-e Lau
1330-1348
Binya-u
1348-1385
Binya-Nwe
1385-1423
Binya Dhamma Radza
1423-1426
Binya Rankit
1426-1446
Binya Waru
1446-1450
Binya Keng
1450-1453
Mhaudau
1453
Shengtsaubu (f)
1453-1460
Dhamma Dzedi
1460-1491
Binya Ran
1491-1526
Takarwutbi
1526-1540
Tabin Shwehti
1531-1550
captures Pengu, 1539; King of Lower Burma, 1542; captures Pagan, 1546; King of all Burma
Thamindwut
1550
Thaminhtau
1550-1551
Bayin Naung
1551-1581
captures Ava, 1555; captures Chiang Mai, 1557; attacks Ayuthya, 1563; captures Ayuthya, 1569
Nandabayin
1581-1599
driven from Siam, 1593; Chinese intervention, 1599-1600
TAUNGU
Ngyaung Ram Meng
1599-1605
Mahadhammaraja
1605-1628
Mengre Dippa
1628-1629
Thalwun Mengtara
1629-1648
Bengtale
1648-1661
Pyi Meng
1661-1672
Narawara
1672
Thiri Pawara
Mahadhammaraja
1672-1698
Thiri Maha
Thihathura Thudhamma
1698-1714
Thiri Pawara
Mahadhammaraja
Dibati Hsengphyusheng
1714-1733
Mahadhammaraja Dibati
1733-1751
to Konbaung, 1751
SHAN
Buddha Thi Gwe Meng
1740-1746
Binya Dala
1746-1757
Alaungpaya
1753-1760
Naundawgyi
1760-1763
Hsinbyushin
1763-1776
Chinese invasion, 1765-1769; Ayuthya destroyed, 1767
Singu Min
1776-1781
Maung Maung
1781
Bodawdaya
1781-1819
captures Arakan, 1784; invasion of Siam defeated, 1785; Peace with Siam, acquisition of Tenasserim coast, 1793
Bagyidaw
1819-1837
First Burmese War, 1824-1826, loss of Assam, Arakan, & Tenasserim to Britain, 1826
Tharrawaddy
1837-1846
Pagin Min
1846-1852
Mindon Min
1853-1878
Second Burmese War, 1852-1853, Lower Burma to Britain, 1853; Manalay becomes capital, 1857
Thibaw
1878-1885,
d.1916
Third Burmese War, 1885, Burma annexed by Britain,
1886-1942, 1945-1948; Japanese occupation, 1942-1945
The Shan were among the Thai-Lao people who streamed into Southeast Asia in the 13th century, perhaps driven out of Yunnan by the Mongols. Shan states destabilize Burma, and their aggressiveness may be responsible for the newly aggressive state of Taungu that creates a bit of a Burmese Empire in the 16th century.
The conquest by Taungu of the Thai Kingdoms, Chiang Mai and Ayuthya, is one of the high points of Burmese history. The triumph, especially over Siam, however, is brief.
The revival of a unified Burmese state under Konbaung led to some triumphs, as for a while over Siam again, and then to a series of setbacks. Defeated in Siam, the Burmese then had to face an enemy even more formidable than China — the British in India.
All the British ever wanted to do was trade and make money, but ideas of private property and free trade were more than a little foreign to Burmese sovereigns. Hassling British subjects in the 19th century, however, brings down the wrath of Britain, with all its modern military superiority.
Three wars with Britain led to the dismemberment and then annexation of Burma. And as the century progressed, the British became increasingly more interested in conquest than just in trade. The First Burmese War meant in 1826 the loss of Assam, still today part of India, Arakan, only recently secured, and Tenasserim, only more recently secured. These territories were not exactly integral to the Burmese state; but the Second Burmese War led to the annexation of Lower Burma, with Rangoon and Pengu, in 1853. The British general Sir Harry Prendergast finally entered Mandalay in 1885, and the whole country was annexed the following year.
British Chief Commissioners |
|
---|---|
Sir Arthur Purves Phayre | 1862-1867 |
Albert Fytche | 1867-1871 |
Ashley Eden | 1871-1875 |
Sir Augustus Rivers Thompson | 1875-1878 |
Charles Umpherston Aitchinson | 1878-1880 |
Sir Charles Edward Bernard | 1880-1883 |
Sir Charles Haukes Todd | 1883-1886 |
Third Burmese War, 1885, Upper Burma annexed by Britain, 1886 | |
Sir Charles Edward Bernard | 1886-1887 |
Sir Charles Haukes Todd | 1887-1890 |
Alexander Mackenzie | 1890-1895 |
Frederick William Richard Fryer | 1895-1897 |
Lieutenant Governors | |
Frederick William Richard Fryer | 1897-1903 |
Sir Hugh Shakespear Barnes | 1903-1905 |
Sir Herbert Thirkell White | 1905-1910 |
Sir Harvey Adamson | 1910-1915 |
Sir George Shaw | 1913-1913 |
Sir Spencer Harcourt Butler | 1915-1917 |
Walter Francis Rice | 1917-1918 |
Sir Reginald Henry Craddock | 1918-1922 |
Sir Spencer Harcourt Butler | 1922-1923 |
Governors | |
Sir Spencer Harcourt Butler | 1923-1927 |
Sir Charles Alexander Innes | 1927-1932 |
Sir Hugh Landsdowne Stephenson | 1932-1936 |
Sir Archibald Douglas Cochrane | 1936-1941 |
Sir Reginald Hugh Dorman-Smith | 1941-1946 |
Japanese Occupation, 1942-1945; Military Commanders | |
Shojiro Iida | 1942-1943 |
Masakazu Kawabe | 1943-1944 |
Heitaro Kimura | 1944-1945 |
Allied Military Governors | |
Louis Mountbatten | 1944-1945 |
Sir Hubert Elvin Rance | 1945-1946 |
Governor | |
Sir Hubert Elvin Rance | 1946-1948 |
Viceroy of India. Mountbatten, however, was not the field commander on the ground. That was General, subsequently Field Marshall, Slim. Details of this campaign are discussed in more detail below.
It was no trouble for the Japanese to find anti-British Burmese to set up a puppet government, which dutifully declared war on the Allies in 1943. After the War, the bitter feelings were reflected in the fact that independent Burma did not choose to join the British Commonwealth. Since then, Burma has suffered from its isolationist tendencies, especially after a military coup in 1962 and one-party socialist state was decreed in 1974. The present military government, with General Shaw Maung as President since 1988, setting aside democratic election results in 1990, has gained the reputation of one of the worst human rights abusers in the world. In an attempt to stir up fascist-style nationalism, the government changed the name of the country in 1991 to something more “authentic,” Myanmar, but this has done little, of course, to ease the sting of dictatorship.
Presidents of the Union of Burma, Democratic Period, 1948-1962 | |
---|---|
Sao Shwe Thaik | 1948-1952 |
Ba U | 1952-1957 |
Win Maung | 1957-1962 |
“Burmese Socialism” Military Government | |
Ne Win | 1962-1981 |
San Yu | 1981-1988 |
“8888” Democracy Uprising; Military Coup, 1988 | |
Sein Lwin | 1988 |
Maung Maung | 1988 |
Dictator Chairmen of Military State Council | |
Saw Maung | 1988-1992 |
Aung San Suu Kyi wins general election, nullified by Military, 1990; Burma becomes “Myanmar,” 1991 | |
Than Shwe | 1992-present |
Widespread protests, suppressed by Military, 2007 |
rth Koreans). When some food was distributed to storm victims, reports are either that the government claimed to be the source or that the aid food was kept by the Military and rancid local food was distributed. These tyrants are so vile, it is a shame that the U.S. won’t just drop in Don Rumsfeld and the Delta Force and get rid of them. It is otherwise hard to know how the Burmese people will be free of them, though they could not remain in power without some kind of substantial support. While liberal opinion internationally is aroused over the matter, far too much energy is being expended by political activists on confused or vicious condemnations of the American role in overthrowing the late dictator of Iraq to have any serious intentions about overthrowing the dictators of Burma.
Tags: Aung San Suu Kyi, Buddhism, Burma, Burmese language, China, Golden Horde, Japan, Karen people, Mongolia, Mongols, Rakhine State, Sanskrit, Shan, Thailand, Theravada
Leave a Reply